Some genera of tarantulas hunt prey primarily in trees; others hunt on or near the ground. All tarantulas can produce silk—while arboreal species will typically reside in a silken "tube tent", terrestrial species will line their burrows with silk to stabilize the burrow wall and facilitate climbing up and down. Tarantulas mainly eat insects and other arthropods, using ambush as their primary method of prey capture. The biggest tarantulas can kill animals as large as lizards, mice, and birds.They can be found in the south and west parts of the USA, Central America, and down throughout South America to the southern parts of Chile, Argentina. Tarantulas can also be found throughout Africa, large parts of Asia and all over Australia. In Europe, there are some species in Spain, Portugal, Turkey, Italy, and in Cyprus. Most tarantulas are harmless to humans, and some species are popular in the exotic pet trade. All tarantulas are venomous, but only some species have venom that, while not known to have ever produced human fatalities, can produce extreme discomfort over a period of several days.
Like all arthropods, the tarantula is an invertebrate that relies on an exoskeleton for muscular support. A tarantula’s body consists of two main parts, the prosoma (cephalothorax) and the opisthosoma (abdomen). The prosoma and opisthosoma are connected by the pedicle, or what is often called the pregenital somite. This waist-like connecting piece is actually part of the prosoma and allows the opisthosoma to move in a wide range of motion relative to the prosoma.
The sizes range from as small as a fingernail to as big as a diner plate. Depending on the species, the body length of tarantulas ranges from 2.5 to 10 centimetres (1 to 4 in), with 8–30-centimetre (3–12 in) leg spans. Leg span is determined by measuring from the tip of the back leg to the tip of the front leg on the opposite side. The largest species of tarantula can weigh over 85 grams (3 oz). The largest of all, the Goliath Birdeater (Theraphosa blondi) from Venezuela and Brazil, has been reported to have a weight of 150 grams (5.3 oz) and a leg-span of up to 30 centimetres (12 in), males being the longer and females greater in girth.
T. apophysis (the Pinkfoot Goliath) was described 187 years after the Goliath Birdeater; therefore its characteristics are not as well attested.T. blondi is generally thought to be the heaviest tarantula, and T. apophysis to have the greatest leg span. Two other species, Lasiodora parahybana (the Brazilian Salmon Birdeater) and L. klugi, rival the size of the two Goliath spiders.
The majority of North American tarantulas are brown. Elsewhere have been found species colored cobalt blue (Haplopelma lividum), black with white stripes (Aphonopelma seemanni), yellow leg markings (Eupalaestrus campestratus), metallic blue legs with vibrant orange abdomen and greenbottle blue (Chromatopelma cyaneopubescens). Their natural habitats include savanna, grasslands such as the pampas, rainforests, deserts, scrubland, mountains, and cloud forests. They are generally classed among the terrestrial types. They are burrowers that live in the ground.
Tarantulas are becoming increasingly popular as pets and are readily available in captivity.
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[edit] Etymology
The word "tarantula" has been applied to several very different kinds of spider. The spider originally bearing that name is one of the wolf spiders, Lycosa tarantula, found in the region surrounding the southern Italian town of Taranto. Compared to new-world tarantulas, wolf spiders are not particularly large or hairy.[edit] Tarantism
The bite of L. tarantula was once believed to cause a fatal condition called tarantism[citation needed], whose cure was believed to involve wild dancing of a kind that has come to be identified with the tarantella[citation needed]. However, modern research[citation needed] has shown that the bite of L. tarantula is generally not dangerous to human beings. There appears to have existed a different species of spider in the fields around Taranto responsible for fairly severe bites. The likely candidate (and the only spider found in the area which is dangerous to man) is the malmignatte or Mediterranean black widow. This spider, which belongs in the genus Latrodectus, is a close relative of the black widow and redback spiders, and has a bite which is medically significant. However, Lycosa tarantula, being larger and more fearsome-looking, tended to be unjustly credited with any severe bites[citation needed].[edit] New-world and other divergent usages
When theraphosids were encountered in the Americas, they were named "tarantulas", causing usage of the term to shift to the tropical spiders. Nevertheless, these spiders belong to the suborder Mygalomorphae, and are not closely related to wolf spiders.The name "tarantula" is also mistakenly applied to other large-bodied spiders, including the purseweb spiders or atypical tarantulas, the funnel-webs (Dipluridae and Hexathelidae), and the "dwarf tarantulas". These spiders are related to tarantulas (all being mygalomorphs), but are classified in different families. Huntsman spiders of the family Sparassidae have also been termed "tarantulas" because of their large size. In fact, they are not related, belonging to the suborder Araneomorphae.
[edit] Appendages
The pedipalpi are two six-segment appendages connected to the thorax near the mouth and protruding on either side of both chelicerae. In most species of tarantula, the pedipalpi contain sharp jagged plates used to cut and crush food often called the coxae or maxillae. As with other spiders, the terminal portion of the pedipalpi of males function as part of its reproductive system. Male spiders spin a silken platform (sperm web) on the ground onto which they release semen from glands in their opistoma. Then they insert their pedipalps into the semen, absorb the semen into the pedipalps, and later insert the pedipalps (one at a time) into the reproductive organ of the female, which is located in her abdomen. The terminal segments of the pedipalps of male tarantulas are moderately larger in circumference than those of a female tarantula. Male tarantulas have special spinnerets surrounding the genital opening. Silk for the sperm web of the tarantula is exuded from these special spinnerets.
Tarantulas, like almost all other spiders, have their primary spinnerets at the end of the opisthosoma. Unlike the typical spiders that on average have six, tarantulas have two or four spinnerets. Spinnerets are flexible tubelike structures from which the spider exudes its silk. The tip of each spinneret is called the spinning field. Each spinning field is covered by as many as one hundred spinning tubes through which silk is exuded. This silk hardens on contact with the air to become a threadlike substance.
[edit] Silk-producing feet
It was discovered that some tarantulas have silk-producing spigots on their feet.[1] As the research subjects used to make this discovery, which was first proposed in 2006, varied widely, Dr Claire Rind of the University of Newcastle suggests that it is likely that all tarantulas have the ability to produce silk from their tarsi (feet).[2] The existence of these structures is thought to enable the spiders to cling to smooth surfaces and thus avoid a harmful fall. The discovery was published in the Journal of Experimental Biology.[3][edit] Digestive system
The tarantula's digestive organ (stomach) is a tube that runs the length of its body. In the prosoma, this tube is wider and forms the sucking stomach. When the sucking stomach's powerful muscles contract, the stomach is increased in cross-section, creating a strong sucking action that permits the tarantula to suck its liquefied prey up through the mouth and into the intestines. Once the liquefied food enters the intestines, it is broken down into particles small enough to pass through the intestine walls into the hemolymph (blood stream) where it is distributed throughout the body. After feeding, the leftovers are formed into a small ball by the tarantula and thrown away. In a terrarium, they often put them into the same corner.[4] As these balls are perfect hosts for molds and parasites, they must be removed regularly.
[edit] Nervous system
A tarantula's central nervous system (brain) is located in the bottom of the inner prosoma. A tarantula perceives its surroundings primarily via sensory organs called setae (hairs or spines). Although a tarantula has eyes, touch is its keenest sense, and in hunting it primarily depends on vibrations given off by the movements of its prey. A tarantula's setae are very sensitive organs and are used to sense chemical signatures, vibrations, wind direction, and possibly even sound. Tarantulas are also very responsive to the presence of certain chemicals such as pheromones.
[edit] Respiratory system
In all types of tarantula there are two sets of book lungs (breathing organs). The first pair of book lungs is located in a cavity inside the lower front part of the abdomen near where the abdomen connects to the cephalothorax and the second pair slightly farther back on the abdomen. Air enters the cavity through a tiny slit on each side of and near the front of the abdomen. Each lung consists of 15 or more thin sheets of folded tissue arranged like the pages of a book. These sheets of tissue are supplied by blood vessels. As air enters each lung, oxygen is taken into the blood stream through the blood vessels in the lungs. Needed moisture may also be absorbed from humid air by these organs.[edit] Circulatory system
[edit] Predators
Regardless of their fearsome reputation, tarantulas are themselves an object of predation, the most specialized of these predators are large members of the wasp family Pompilidae. In the Americas, these insects are termed "tarantula hawks", being parasitoids of tarantulas. The largest tarantula hawks, such as those in the genus Pepsis, will track, attack and kill large tarantulas. They use olfaction to find the lair of a tarantula. The wasp must deliver a sting to the underside of the spider's cephalothorax, exploiting the thin membrane between the basal leg segments. This paralyzes the spider and the wasp then drags it back into its burrow before depositing an egg on the prey's abdomen. The wasp then seals the spider in its burrow and flies off to search for more hosts. The wasp larva hatches and feeds on the spider's non-essential parts and, as it approaches pupation, it consumes the remainder.[5] In addition to animals, tarantulas are also considered a delicacy in certain cultures (e.g., Cambodia). They are usually roasted over an open fire to remove the hair and then eaten.
Urticating hairs are usually kicked off the abdomen by the tarantula, but it is noteworthy that some may simply rub the abdomen against the target, such is so with the Avicularia genera. These fine hairs are barbed and serve to irritate. They can be lethal to small animals such as rodents. Some people are extremely sensitive to these hairs, and develop serious itching and rashes at the site. Exposure of the eyes and respiratory system to urticating hairs should be strictly avoided. Species with urticating hairs can kick these hairs off: they are flicked into the air at a target using their back pairs of legs. Tarantulas also use these hairs for other purposes such as to mark territory or to line their shelters (the latter such practice may discourage flies from feeding on the spiderlings). Urticating hairs do not grow back, but are replaced with each moult. The intensity, amount, and flotation of the hairs depends on the species of tarantula. Many[who?] owners of Goliath Birdeaters (T. blondi) claim that theraphosids have the worst urticating hairs.[citation needed].
To predators and other kinds of enemies, these hairs can range from being lethal to simply being a deterrent. With humans, they can cause irritation to eyes, nose, and skin, and more dangerously, the lungs and airways, if inhaled. The symptoms range from species to species, from person to person, from a burning itch to a minor rash. In some cases, tarantula hairs have caused permanent damage to human eyes.[7]
Some setae are used to stridulate, which makes a hissing sound. These hairs are usually found on the chelicerae. Stridulation seems to be more common in old-world species.
[edit] Bites and Urticating Hairs
Before biting, tarantulas may signal their intention to attack by rearing up into a "threat posture", which may involve raising their prosoma and lifting their front legs into the air, spreading and extending their fangs, and (in certain species) making a loud hissing by stridulating. Their next step, short of biting, may be to slap down on the intruder with their raised front legs. If that response fails to deter the attacker, the tarantulas of the Americas may next turn away and flick urticating hairs toward the pursuing predator. The next response may be leave the scene entirely, but, especially if there is no line of retreat, their final response may also be to whirl suddenly and bite. Some tarantulas are well known to give "dry bites," i.e., they may defensively bite some animal that intrudes on their space and threatens them, but they will not pump venom into the wound.
New-world tarantulas (those found in North and South America) are equipped with urticating hairs on their abdomen, and will almost always throw these barbed hairs as a first line of defense. These hairs will irritate sensitive areas of the body and especially seem to target curious animals who may sniff these hairs into the mucous membranes of the nose. Some species have more effective urticating hairs than others. The Goliath Birdeater is one species known for its particularly irritating urticating hairs. Urticating hairs can penetrate the cornea so eye protection should be worn when handling such tarantulas.[9]
Old-world tarantulas (from Europe, Africa, Asia and Australia) have no urticating hairs and are more likely to attack when disturbed. Old-world tarantulas often have more potent, medically significant venom.
There are dangerous spider species which are related to tarantulas and frequently confused with them. A popular urban legend maintains that deadly varieties of tarantula exist somewhere in South America. This claim is often made without identifying a particular spider, although the "banana tarantula" is sometimes named. A likely candidate for the true identity of this spider is the dangerous Brazilian wandering spider Phoneutria nigriventer, of the family Ctenidae, as it is sometimes found hiding in clusters of bananas and is one of several spiders called the "banana spider." It is not technically a tarantula but it is fairly large (4–5 inches long), somewhat hairy, and is highly venomous to humans. Another dangerous type of spider that has been confused with tarantulas is the Australasian funnel-web spider. The best known of these is the Sydney funnel-web spider Atrax robustus, a spider that is aggressive, highly venomous, and (prior to the development of antivenin in the 1980s) was responsible for numerous deaths in Australia. These spiders are members of the same suborder as tarantulas. (Some Australians use the slang term 'triantelope' for large, hairy, and harmless members of the Huntsman spider family which are often found on interior household walls and in automobiles.[10])
[edit] Medical implications
While no fatalities have been attributed to tarantula bites, sometimes spider bites are regarded as the probable source of infections. Medical advice regarding prophylaxis may be helpful in that regard. In addition, there is considerable anecdotal evidence[citation needed] indicating that the venoms of some old-world species can produce symptoms so severe that medical treatment would be appropriate. Medical intervention is also regarded as appropriate when symptoms such as breathing difficulty or chest pain develop, since these conditions may indicate an anaphylactic reaction. As with bee stings, allergic reactions to protein fractions may be many times more dangerous than the direct toxic effects of the venom.Urticating hairs may cause medical problems for humans should they enter the eyes or the respiratory system. Unless one inhales air heavily laden with these hairs or rubs them into one's eyes, they are rarely a problem. Some individuals are more sensitive to skin contact with these spines and learn to avoid them when cleaning cages or otherwise coming into potential contact with them.
[edit] Sexual dimorphism
Some tarantula species exhibit pronounced sexual dimorphism. Males tend to be smaller (especially their abdomens, which can appear quite narrow) and may be dull in color when compared to their female counterparts, as in the species Haplopelma lividum. Mature male tarantulas also may have tibial hooks on their front legs, which are used to restrain the female's fangs during copulation.A juvenile male's sex can be determined by looking at a cast exuvium for exiandrous fusillae or spermathecae. Females possess spermathecae except for the species Sickius longibulbi and Encyocratella olivacea.[11][12] Ventral sexing is difficult, but, if done correctly, it can be relatively reliable. Males have much shorter lifespans than females because they die relatively soon after maturing. Few live long enough for a post-ultimate moult. It is unlikely that it happens much in natural habitats because they are vulnerable to predation, but it has happened in captivity if rarely. Most males do not live through this moult as they tend to get their emboli, mature male sexual organs on pedipalps, stuck in the moult. Most tarantula fanciers regard females as more desirable as pets due to their much longer lifespan. Wild caught tarantulas are often mature males because they wander out in the open and are more likely to be caught.
[edit] Life cycle
Tarantulas may live for years—most species taking 2 to 5 years to reach adulthood, but some species may take up to 10 years to reach full maturity. Upon reaching adulthood, males typically have but a 1 to 1.5 year period left to live and will immediately go in search of a female with which to mate. Male tarantulas rarely moult again once they reach adulthood. The oldest spider, according to Guinness World Records, lived to be 49 years old.
Females will continue to moult after reaching maturity. Female specimens have been known to reach 30 to 40 years of age, and have survived on water alone for up to 2 years.[13] Grammostola rosea spiders are renowned for going for long periods without eating.[citation needed]
[edit] Reproduction
Females deposit 50 to 2000 eggs, depending on the species, in a silken egg sac and guard it for 6 to 7 weeks. During this time, the female will stay very close to the egg sac and become more aggressive. Within most species, the female turns the egg sac often, which is called brooding. This keeps the eggs from deforming due to sitting too long. The young spiderlings remain in the nest for some time after hatching where they live off the remains of their yolk sac before dispersing.[citation needed]
[edit] Taxonomy
Main article: List of Theraphosidae species
The family Theraphosidae is divided up into 12 subfamilies, containing over 100 genera and around 900 species between them.- Acanthopelminae, first described by Frederick Octavius Pickard-Cambridge in 1897, is a subfamily of small, terrestrial new-world tarantulas. This subfamily has only one genus, Acanthopelma, and two species, A. beccarri and A. rufescens, found in Guyana and Central America.
- Aviculariinae is a subfamily of tropical, tree-dwelling new-world tarantulas. They range from the Caribbean to South America, and are commonly known as "pinktoe" tarantulas. The genera Avicularia, Ephebopus, and Pachistopelma possess urticating hairs, but cannot "flick" them into the air; instead the hairs are pressed into an enemy upon contact.
- Eumenophorinae is a subfamily of old-world tarantulas, mostly from Africa and surrounding regions. In addition, some authors place genus Proshapalopus (a genus found in Brazil, and not in Africa) in this sub-family.
Bicolor cat
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Tuxedo cat)
Chelsea Clinton's cat, Socks (1989-2009), lived in the White House from 1993 to 2001. Socks was a bicolor cat with low grade spotting, or tuxedo cat.
Where there is low-to-medium grade white spotting limited to the face, paws, throat and chest of an otherwise black cat, they are known in the United States as a tuxedo cat or Billicat[citation needed]. High grade bicolor results in Van-pattern cats. There are many patterns between, such as "cap-and-saddle", "mask-and-mantle" and "magpie" (more randomly splashed). Bicolors are found in many breeds, as well as being common in domestic longhair cats and domestic shorthair cats.
Solid color bicolor cats occur because there is a white spotting gene present along with a recessive allele of the agouti gene, which evens out the usual striped pattern of the colors of the coat. In contrast, tabby cats have an agouti gene that produces striping of the coat. The Abyssinian has agouti (ticked tabby) fur, giving the appearance of even color with color-banded hairs.
White spotting can also occur with any of the tabby patterns, resulting in tabby-and-white bicolors. Colorpoint (Himalayan pattern) cats can have bicolor points, although this variation is not recognized for showing. The body markings of bicolor colorpoints become clearer with age, as the body fur of colorpoint cats darkens as the cats grow older and the white patches become more visible.
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[edit] Grades 1 - 10 of bicolor in cats
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A low-grade spotting black-and-white bicolor cat is often known as a "tuxedo cat" or a "Billicat". To be considered a tuxedo cat, its black coloring should be solid throughout, with white limited to the paws, belly, chest, throat, face, and possibly the chin: it should appear as if the cat were wearing a tuxedo.
Another type of black-and-white bicolor cat is nicknamed "cow cat" or "moo cat" (for a perceived resemblance to Holstein cattle)[citation needed] and includes the magpie, cap-and-saddle and mask-and-mantle patterns. A cow cat does not have the solid black "jacket" of the tuxedo cat. Instead, it has big black patches over a mostly white body, often with a black mask over the head. "Black Mask Cats" are so called because they look like they are wearing a black mask over their head. The Turkish Van (white and red) is one good example of a bicolor breed. Van pattern is known to animal geneticists as the Seychelles (Seychellois) Pattern and is classified into 3 variants:[1]
- Seychellois Neuvieme - white with colored tail and head splashes (classic Van Pattern)
- Seychellois Huitieme - white with colored tail and head splashes plus additional splashes of color on the legs
- Seychellois Septieme - white with splashes of color on the legs and body in addition to those on the head and the colored tail.
[edit] Frequency in different breeds
This coloration is not restricted to a specific breed of cat, as it can be found in many different types of pure-breed as well as mixed-breed domestic cats.[2] However, some breeds of cats are especially noted for having bicolor coats in their breed standards. These include the Turkish Van, American Shorthair, Manx, British Shorthair, Turkish Angora, and Bombay.[3]In contrast, other common breeds of cat have specific coat patterns specified in their breed standards. These cats are therefore never seen in the bicolor pattern. Cats with such specific coat patterns such as the Russian Blue which has a coat of one solid color.
[edit] Genetics of coat patterns
Main article: Cat coat genetics
The basic colors and patterns of cat fur are defined by fewer than ten genes.[4] Cats with white color in their coats are thought to have a mutant white-spotting gene that prevents the formation of coat color in patches over the cat's body. This gene has been investigated in several species, particularly mice, and is co-dominant to normal coat color as it prevents the migration of melanocytes into the developing hair follicles.[5] The genetics of this pattern are not as well understood in cats but at least some of the genes involved in melanocyte migration and survival may play a role similar as in other animals.[6]Three genotypes possible with the S (white spotting) gene, with capital S standing for a wild-type copy and lower-case s standing for the mutant.[4]
- SS (two dominant alleles) results in high grades of white spotting (sometimes resulting in a solid-looking white cat or a white cat with just a few color hairs)
- Ss (one dominant, one recessive allele) results in medium grades of white spotting
- ss (two recessive alleles) results in solid color or low grades of white spotting (sometimes as little as a few white hairs)
[edit] Tuxedo cats
A tuxedo cat is a bicolor cat with a white and black coat. They are called, "tuxedo" cats, because the animal appears to be wearing the type of black tie formal wear commonly known in the United States and Canada as a tuxedo. Most tuxedo cats are also black mask cats, a common name for felines who, due to their facial coloration, look as if they are wearing a black mask over their eyes, and often over their entire head. To be considered a true tuxedo cat, the feline's coloring should consist of a solid black coat, with white fur limited to the paws, belly, chest, throat, and often the chin, although many tuxedo cats appear to sport goatees, due to the black coloration of their mandible -- that is, the lower jaw and chin. Bicolor may also appear in the skin color. Paw pads may be black or pink. Bicoloring of the nose and mouth are also common.[edit] In popular culture
In the United Kingdom, the tuxedo cat is sometimes known as the "Jellicle cat", after the fictional tribe of black and white cats described by T. S. Eliot in Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats, which was first published in 1939.[9] In its derivative musical, Cats, the tuxedo cat is exemplified by the character of the magical Mr. Mistoffelees, who is portrayed as a stage magician wearing a lacy ruff and bow tie. The musical differed from the book in that the characters included cats with many different coat colors, rather than just bicolor cats, but it retains the repeated assertion that "Jellicle cats are black and white." Cats with these markings also played a starring role in the drawings illustrating The Unadulterated Cat, a book written by Terry Pratchett, with cartoons by Joliffe Gray.[10]Other well known cartoon bicolor cats include Felix the Cat, Tom Cat from Tom and Jerry, Figaro and Sylvester. A bicolor cat named Mittens is one of the main characters in the 2008 Disney animated film "Bolt".
[edit] Examples of various bicolor patterns
[edit] Tuxedos
A long-hair female with classic tuxedo markings.
Male Tuxedo Cat with a white mustache.
Adult female tuxedo cat.
Adult Female Tuxedo Cat.
A closeup of a male tuxedo cat with asymmetrical face markings.
[edit] Non-tuxedo bicolor variations
Two bicolors with distinct coats.
An adult shorthair displaying the "mask and mantle" pattern
Another non-tuxedo.
An adolescent with a Cap-and-Saddle pattern.
[edit] Other Bicolor Variations
Orange bicolor with mostly white (van pattern)
A six days old bicolor kitten, demonstrating how early the pattern can be seen
Ebony White Bicolor Oriental Shorthair Male
A bicolor cat with a symmetrical pattern on his face.
[edit] Various Colors of Bicolor Cat
Red bicolor
Chocolate bicolor cat
Black Smoke Tuxedo on male Cornish Rex
Bicolor cat with a grade 6 on the bicolor chart.
[edit] See also
- Cat
- Domestic longhair cat
- Domestic shorthaired cat
- Felidae
- Fictional cats
- Felix the Cat
- Sylvester the Cat
- Socks
- Tom Cat
- Kat Kong
[edit] References
- ^ "Seychellois". Fanciers Breeder Referral List. http://www.breedlist.com/seychellois-breeders.html. Retrieved 2007-08-05.
- ^ "Cat Breed Descriptions". Laura Gilbreath. http://www.travelswithtigger.com/fanciers/breed-desc.html. Retrieved 2007-08-05.
- ^ "CFA Breeds". The Cat Fanciers' Association. http://www.cfa.org/breeds.html. Retrieved 2007-08-05.
- ^ a b c "Coat Colors & Fur Types". Feline Genome project. http://faculty.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/faculty/lalyons/Sites/color.htm. Retrieved 2007-08-05.[dead link]
- ^ Yoshida H, Kunisada T, Grimm T, Nishimura EK, Nishioka E, Nishikawa SI (2001). "Review: melanocyte migration and survival controlled by SCF/c-kit expression". J. Investig. Dermatol. Symp. Proc. 6 (1): 1–5. doi:10.1046/j.0022-202x.2001.00006.x. PMID 11764276.
- ^ Cooper MP, Fretwell N, Bailey SJ, Lyons LA (2006). "White spotting in the domestic cat (Felis catus) maps near KIT on feline chromosome B1". Anim. Genet. 37 (2): 163–5. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2052.2005.01389.x. PMC 1464422. PMID 16573531.
- ^ Jackson IJ (1997). "Homologous pigmentation mutations in human, mouse and other model organisms". Hum. Mol. Genet. 6 (10): 1613–24. doi:10.1093/hmg/6.10.1613. PMID 9300652. http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/6/10/1613.
- ^ Eizirik E, Yuhki N, Johnson WE, Menotti-Raymond M, Hannah SS, O'Brien SJ (2003). "Molecular genetics and evolution of melanism in the cat family". Curr. Biol. 13 (5): 448–53. doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00128-3. PMID 12620197.
- ^ T. S. Eliot (1982). Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats. Harcourt. ISBN 0-15-168656-4.
- ^ Terry Pratchett and Joliffe Gray The Unadulterated Cat Orion; New Ed edition (26 September 2002) ISBN 0-752-85369-4
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